Pregnancy on New Kingdom Sai: A Cowroid of Taweret

Posted on March 1, 2015 by Kenneth Griffin Meg Gundlach

Cowroid bead SAV1W 723.

One of the highlights of this season’s excavation within the town area at Sai was the discovery of a beautiful cowroid bead (SAV1W 723) containing an image of the Egyptian goddess Taweret. The object was uncovered in SAV1 West within the first few weeks of the excavation (17 Jan). It measures 17x9x5 mm, is made of a glazed composite material, and is longitudinally pierced to enable suspension. While the object was found in a mixed area, it is likely that it dates to the New Kingdom—and specifically to the Eighteenth Dynasty—based on examples known from elsewhere (e.g. BM EA 3737).

Cowroid BM EA3727.

The cowroid is a popular form of scaraboid with a circular or elongated oval base with markings on its back, which show that it was based on the cowrie shell. The cowrie shell was believed to have amuletic significance because of the resemblance to the female genitalia. These shells are even found in graves dating to as early as the Predynastic Period. However, from the late Old Kingdom onwards they were being imitated in blue-glazed composition and other semi-precious stones, with gold and silver examples known from the Middle Kingdom (e.g. BM EA 3077). Usually part of a woman’s girdle, the cowroids would have been in exactly the right place to ward off evil influences from the relevant bodily part of the wearer, especially if she were pregnant.

BM EA 3077.

Taweret, whose name means “the great one”, was one of the most popular female deities throughout the Dynastic Period. She is mainly depicted in composite form: the head of a hippopotamus, the legs and arms of a lion, and the tail of a crocodile. Perhaps the most well-known representation of her is the stunning schist statue, dating to the Saite Period, which is now in the Cairo Museum (CG 39194). Taweret is often shown next to a s3-sign, the symbol of “protection”, as can be seen with the cowroid in question. Despite her ferocious appearance, Taweret was invoked as protector of pregnant women and childbirth. In fact, Taweret is depicted with pendulous breasts and a large belly, thus imitating the appearance of a pregnant woman. On the cowroid from Sai Taweret can be seen wielding a knife, an iconography commonly attested on Middle Kingdom apotropaic wands, such as the one discussed here (Met 30.8.218).

The mixed symbolism of a cowrie shell and the representation of Taweret would seem the prefect remedy to protect a pregnant woman during this vulnerable period. The fact that the cowroid is pierced longitudinally would suggest that it was worn across the pelvic region as part of a girdle. While it will never be known if the cowroid had the desired effect, or if it was worn by an Egyptian or Nubian inhabitant, objects such as this provide us with a small glimpse into the private and religious lives of the ancient population on Sai.

Cemetery, seals, pots and Nun-bowls in week 8

Posted on February 26, 2015 by Julia Budka

This week work focused again on fieldwork in the cemetery SAC5 and registration and studying of various find categories in the dig house.

Excavation in area 1 in the southern part of SAC5 proved to be very interesting: we now know that this large sector set between two small hill outcrops probably was completly void of tombs. No burial monuments were located, but rather various interesting topographical features exposed – Martin Fera will compose a digital landscape model in the next weeks attempting a first interpretation of this topography. The fresh information will allow some new insights into the landscape, evolution and size of the New Kingdom cemetery SAC5.

Area 1 with newly exposed topographies.

In agreement with Florence Thill, we started digging another area in SAC5: area 2 is located north of area 1, just next to various 18^th Dynasty monuments like tomb 8. The surface material discovered so far covers all the periods attested for the use of SAC5 as a burial site: mid-late 18^th Dynasty, Late Ramesside, Pre-Napatan and Napatan.

Today, a sandy depression was found, surrounded on three sides by bedrock – we’ll continue excavating there, of course hoping for a shaft opening belonging to a new tomb.

Promising new area 2 in SAC5.

Feature 15 keeps us busy in the digging house – most of the washing of the ceramics is now done, but sorting is still ongoing. 60 vessels have been reconstructed so far – dozens of more are still waiting to be joined. Oliver Frank Stephan concentrates on drawing the complete profiles and reconstructed pots. Registration of finds from feature 15 continued – Ken Griffin and Meg Gundlach have been very productive in entering different types of objects into the database. By now, a total of 329 small finds were registered from feature 15! And I am not yet done with sieving, some bags with material from directly above the pavement are still unchecked, for sure comprising more objects. Already 171 seal impressions were documented, mostly dating to Hatshepsut and Thutmose III. We continue to be a bit baffled about the large amount of clay sealings from such a small structure!

Exciting: this week a substantial number of new seal types were registered.

Sabine Tschorn started with drawing representative fragments of faience vessels – most of which are Nun-bowls, but other shapes like small chalices are also attested. The number of fragments from SAV1 West is much higher than from SAV1 East – probably related to the different character of the areas, but it could also be explained by the slightly later date of deposits in SAV1 West. The late 18^th Dynasty, a well-known heyday of faience production, is better attested in our western area than within the surroundings of Building A towards the East.

Happy with small, but diagnostic pieces of Nun-bowls from SAV1 West.

Happy about small, but diagnostic pieces of Nun-bowls from SAV1 West.

Last but not least I am very thankful to Stuart Tyson Smith and his team for welcoming us this week in Tombos – we got a splendid tour through the cemetery and the town site. There are many parallels to Sai Island and I am looking much forward to future results of the Tombos mission and a continous open exchange and collaboration.

More dogs from Sai Island

Posted on February 21, 2015 by Julia Budka

Our colleagues working at Amara West just made a somewhat surprising discovery of dog-paw prints in one of their houses! This is the perfect opportunity to present one of the highlights of our season, coming from SAV1 West.

Dogs have been integral parts of AcrossBorders since our very first season in 2013 – over one hundred fragments of fire dogs were found and processed and a small puppy has grown up to become a faithful companion, proud mum and well-known representative of its species even beyond Sai Island.

Dog bones are probably present in the animal bones from the New Kingdom town – small amounts were identified from 18^th Dynasty levels in SAV1 North. However, discriminating between dog, jackal and fox bones is challenging and not always possible.

This season the first three-dimensional representation of a New Kingdom dog was discovered within the Pharaonic town! In Square 1 South, a small clay figurine (58 x 35 x 15 mm) was found.

We christened the adorable figurine “Wastl” – Viennese dog owners will understand why! Wastl has a long snout, pointy ears and a small tail. He wears a black collar and his fur is decorated with black dots.

We are still discussing the original use and context of Wastl – some of us think that he is a small figurine and was possibly used as a toy in the 18^th Dynasty. Dog figurines are not very common as small objects, but there are parallels from different periods and various sites (cf. Stevens 2006, 52). My first impression was rather a vessel application – especially because of the small width of the figurine and the broken legs despite the otherwise very good state of preservation. Furthermore, the back side of the figurine is less carefully made and not painted, suggesting a front side and thus not a use as an object.

I am grateful to Anna Stevens of the Amara West team who supported this opinion during their visit last week – Anna pointed out large bowls with animal figurines attached to the rim found at Amarna (Stevens 2006: 177-178, fig. II.8.12). While there is no doubt about the identification of Wastl, the Amarna fragments are all broken and just “quadrupeds”.

May it be a figurine or a vessel application – Wastl clearly seems to refer to a domestic dog, emphasized also because of the collar. This opens many questions – was the presumed bowl with small dog applications just a decorative piece? Did it hold a symbolic meaning? Was it maybe even a dog’s bowl? Or was it of personal value for the owner, carrying specific memories from back home?

After eight weeks of absence, nothing is more understandable than the comfort playing with “other” dogs gives, but also pictorial reminders work fine…

It is completely possible that Wastl belonged to one of the Egyptian officials sent off to Nubia who was a real dog-lover… He definitely managed to delight the AcrossBorders’ dog-lovers – like the other dogs on Sai Island!

Reference:

Stevens 2006 = A. Stevens, Private Religion at Amarna, BAR International Series 1587, Oxford.

Stone Tools at Sai Island

Posted on January 31, 2015 by Kenneth Griffin Meg Gundlach

By far, stone tools make up the majority of the small finds we handle each day. Even for a settlement site, both the East and West trenches are unearthing tools in unusually large quantities. Due to both the long history of use and the frequent employment of naturally shaped pebbles, these tools are extremely difficult to date. While they are common within our Eighteenth Dynasty contexts, we must admit that the area around the local medieval church is also littered with identical examples. The use of the natural rock shape can hamper the recognition and identification of these objects, and we were lucky to receive a crash course from Silvia Prell, an expert on macrolithics, who was here at Sai for the beginning of the season.

This year, the most commonly represented types of tool are pounders; heavy pebbles that can be used to grind and mix material against a slab of stone. These can come in multiple shapes and sizes, as well as a variety of materials.

One of the numerous pounders from SAV1 East (SAV1E 1823).

The example shown here (SAV1E 1823) is made from a quartz pebble, which are extremely abundant on the Island. Despite being broken in half, it is clear that the tool was roughly spherical in shape, with percussions marks present along the entire circumference, thus indicating that it was well used.

Hand mills and grindstones, which are used together, are the next most common stone tools from Sai with 175 and 142 pieces already registered this year. Both are usually made from quartzite, although it is also possible for them to be made out of sandstone. Though some complete examples have been found, many are highly fragmentary, such as this hand mill (SAV1W 1189).

Fragmentary hand mill from SAV1 West (SAV1W 1189).

This season 173 whetstones have been registered into the database. A whetstone, mainly in the form of a piece of sandstone, is a sharpening stone used for knives and other cutting tools. SAV1W 720 is a good example of this in which multiple faces of the stone were utilized, as can be clearly seen by the deep grooves on the surface.

Example of a whetstone from SAV1 West (SAV1W 720).

In our last blog post we asked our readers for comments and suggestions on a curious fragment of wood. We are grateful for all your suggestions on the identity of this object! This week we have an even stranger object for you to ponder.

Another curious object – this time in stone and from SAV1 West (SAV1W 1184).

SAV1W 1184 is a small natural pebble, irregularly shaped, which seems to have been worked. Small grooves appear to be carved at fairly regular intervals on the stone. Is this really a worked stone or is it simply the work of nature? If worked, what might this object represent and how old is it?

A Curious Wooden Object from SAV1 East

Posted on January 23, 2015 by Kenneth Griffin Meg Gundlach

This past week a curious wooden object (SAV1E 1913) was unearthed at SAV1 East, currently being excavated by Julia Budka, Jördis Vieth and Huda Magzoub, which has generated much discussion between the team and the house staff. At first there was disappointment as it was thought that, based on the shape of the object, we had stumbled across a modern tool (screwdriver), which had been discarded by earlier excavators of the site. However, once the object had been removed from the trench it was clear that this was not the case.

The wooden object SAV1E 1913.

The object, which is approximately 10cm in length, appears to be broken roughly in half lengthwise. The top of the piece is bulbous in shape, ending in a slight point. It is nicely embellished with three lightly incised bands, each consisting of three strands, which encircle the piece. This leads to a platform, just less than 1cm thick, which contains a slight decorative lip at the top. Finally, the object contains a fairly long and slender rod, which tapers at the point. Looking at it from the broken side, the piece resembles the shape of the familiar Egyptian ankh-sign.

What exactly is this object and what era does it date to? It was excavated in a substantial debris layer along the southern edge of Square 4, comprised of mixed material ranging in date from the early 18^th Dynasty to the Ottoman period.

One suggestion is that the object is part of a decorative piece of furniture, perhaps the knob from a chest of drawers or something similar.

The main problem with this is that the rod would extend too far into the furniture, which seems impractical. Could the object be a wooden spindle, a device to spin fibres into thread? While it is an attractive proposal, this time it seems that the rod would have been too short!

Wooden spindle.

Another suggestion is that it could be a top or spinning top, a toy which is designed to be spun rapidly on the ground. Despite the fact this type of toy is known from as early as the Pharaonic period, the overall shape makes this also unlikely.

Spinning top.

Perhaps the most practical use for the object, as proposed by our Sudanese housekeeper Sidahmed, is that it is part of a kohl pot. In this case, the bulbous part would form the handle, the platform would act as the lid, and the rod would be used as an applicator for the kohl. While kohl is a well-known cosmetic to be used by the Egyptians, it can still be found in many African countries today, such as these elaborate examples from Morocco. Therefore, the date of the object could range from the Pharaonic Period to modern times, with the latter bring the most likely scenario.

Moroccan Kohl pots.

We welcome any suggestions and comments from our readers both on the function of this object and its dating!

Image credits

Spinning top – http://museumvictoria.com.au/collections/items/254178/spinning-top-wood-tonala-mexico-1962-1963

Spindle – https://awalimofstormhold.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/5thcentwoodenspindle.jpeg

Scientific trip to the Abry market

Posted on January 13, 2015 by Huda Magzoub

This week I was accompanying a group of experts working with Julia Budka and focusing on the scientific analysis of the composition of mud bricks used in the ancient Egyptian city on the island of Sai. This study is highly relevant to understand the ancient plants and botanical species.

During our trip to Abry market, looking for modern comparisons, the following caught my attention:

The production of agricultural tools in a traditional, local way:

The tool maker sets wood on fire using wood a bellow for pushing the air – his tool is made of an animal skin and iron. The bellow is used by hand to push air to ignite the fire for heating the iron preparation for a variety of forms, especially to manufacture tools for cultivation.

Local tool (bellow) made from animal skin.

Some of the tools manufactured are the following:

– Machete: or Mongal (local name) used for cutting and cleaning plants.

– Metaphase: or torya used to dig the ground and organized in preparation for planting.

– Axe or Nagama (traditional name) is the tool used to dig a hole to put the seed on the ground.

Farming tools and their method of manufacturing.

The other thing that caught my attention at Abry was:

The presence of a large room on the Nile containing large and bulky machines, tubs of cement inside the room and outside, located to the west of the gas station of Abry.

According to the locals, it goes back to the period of the English presence in Sudan and has been used for grain milling and turning it into flour, using the water from the Nile. The mill is run both by air and water, converting it into kinetic energy.

Machine for grinding seeds and pulling water from the Nile.

Object Registration from SAV1 East and SAV1 West

Posted on January 11, 2015 by Kenneth Griffin Meg Gundlach

As with any archaeological excavation, object registration has an important role to play at Sai. Since arriving last week, over 300 finds have been registered, photographed, and entered into the FileMaker database, which now comprises 2060 entries. This year the database has been amended slightly in order to include some additional data and to provide links to each photograph, a feature which enables the thumbnails to be increased in size at the click of a button! The objects range in size—from large quartzite grindstones to small faience beads—and in date—from the Palaeolithic Period to Ottoman times. The most abundant genre of objects needing to be registered is stone tool: grindstones, hand mills, hammers, pounders, and whetstones.

Some of the highlights registered this season include a pottery camel, a pottery quadruped, a fragment of a female figurine, and a flint sickle blade, all of which come from SAV1 West.

The pottery camel (SAV1W 800), likely dating to the Christian/Medieval era, is missing its head and front legs. The rest of the figure is well preserved, including the hump, and it is even possible to identify it as a male camel! Faint traces show that a red wash had been applied to the surface.

The small quadruped figurine (SAV1W 910) is also missing its head, thus making any identification uncertain. The feet are also damaged, as is the tail. Traces of a yellow pigment are still present on the figure. Could it be a dog, cow, or even a horse?

SAV1W 910

SAV1W 906 is a fragment which originally formed part of a female figurine. Despite its small size, the pubic triangle is clearly visible while the buttock is well also defined. The left hand is still visible on the hip. The figure is unfortunately broken at the waist, right knee and left thigh. However, this particular form is well known, particularly during the Eighteenth Dynasty.

SAV1W 906

Finally, SAV1W 909 is a well-shaped flint blade with the serrated edges well preserved. While flint tools are well known from the Predynastic Period in Egypt, it is known that sickle blades, for example, continued to be used through until the Roman Period. In fact, the lack of weathering on this artefact suggests that it may date to the New Kingdom.

SAV1W 909

For only the first week of excavating, the finds have been quite exciting and prolific. We look forward to the rest of the season and sharing more highlights here on the blog!

AcrossBorders 2015: the fieldwork season approaches

Posted on December 23, 2014 by Julia Budka

In a few days, the first group of team members of AcrossBorders will be on the way back to Sudan. We will travel via Khartoum to Sai Island and will start our third season on January 1 (insha’allah). As in the previous seasons, AcrossBorders will focus on the New Kingdom on the large island of Sai. We plan to work in different sectors within the town area and to renew work in the New Kingdom cemetery SAC5.

The 2015 fieldwork will concentrate on the continuous excavation at SAV1E and SAV1W in the New Kingdom town, the new excavation of presumed tombs in cemetery SAC 5 and the documentation of already excavated material from SAV1N, SAV1E and SAV1W (sorting and recording of the material in the courtyard and working room).

One of the main goals of the project is to improve our understanding of the population on the island and to explore the nature of the coexistence of Egyptians and Nubians. A comparison between the material culture from the Egyptian style cemetery and the Egyptian town will be highly relevant in this respect; human remains will offer multiple aspects for analytical research, especially for studies of biological identities.

SAV1 East

Continued fieldwork in the site to the east of the Pharaonic town, labelled SAV1E, investigated for the first time in 2013, is planned for 2015. The orthogonal structure called “Building A” was largely exposed; we aim to finish the complete excavation of this important complex of the mid-18^th Dynasty. Contemporaneous to the excavations, the pottery will be studied.

SAV1 West

New fieldwork in a site to the west of the Pharaonic town, labelled SAV1W, was started in 2014. The western enclosure wall was traced in two squares and brick work datable to the 18^th Dynasty exposed. Very promising New Kingdom deposits have been noticed within the town, to the east of the enclosure wall – several phases for these structures are visible in sections of Post-Pharaonic pits. This interesting area of 18^th Dynasty occupation will be the focus of the 2015 season. Contemporaneous to the excavations, the pottery will be studied. Work will also focus on a detailed study of the stone tools from SAV1W by Silvia Prell.

Sector SAV1 West.

SAC 5

In 2011, a geophysical survey was conducted in the area of the most important New Kingdom cemetery of Sai, SAC5 to the South of the Pharaonic town. We plan to excavate unexplored tombs visible on the magnetometric map of the cemetery, starting with the surroundings of tombs 14 and 15 in the southern part of the cemetery. Our work will include besides the study of the architecture, finds and human remains Structure-From-Motion techniques to create a 3D model of the cemetery and especially of the newly exposed tombs.

The New Kingdom cemetery SAC 5 to the south of the Pharaonic town (view from the north).

I am especially happy that Florence Thill (Lille University) will join us during the excavations in the cemetery and will offer her expertise based on her previous work in SAC 5.

Other tasks

This year, the team will be strengthened by two geoarchaeologists, Miranda Semple and Sayantani Neogi. They will build upon the geological survey conducted in 2014 and will focus on questions of the location and nature of the ancient harbour and the ancient stone quarries. Furthermore, they will collect samples to investigate the micromorphology of the Pharaonic town, focusing on formation processes and cultural activities. It is planned that they will compare the different excavation areas (SAV1N, SAV1W and SAV1E as well as SAV1) to each other. Environmental and climatic settings and changes during the New Kingdom will be focal points in the next years – being investigated by surveying, drilling and test pits.

Furthermore, I am very happy to welcome Frits Heinrich (archaeobotanist) and Jaime van der Heul from Groningen University as external experts – they will conduct archaeobotanical research and will take relevant samples in different areas of the town.

Without doubt another busy season is waiting for us – with renewed work in the cemetery, there will be fresh challenges and for sure a lot of new material. Thanks to all of the support by our Sudanese friends and colleagues and of course due to the joint efforts of all team members, I am more than confident that the results will be amazing and the 2015 season again very productive and highly interesting.

Looking much forward to travel to Sudan and wishing all team members & friends of AcrossBorders very happy holidays and a perfect start into 2015!

Home game: presenting AcrossBorders in Vienna

Posted on November 18, 2014 by Julia Budka

I was fortunate to present AcrossBorders at several conferences in the last two years (Prague, London, Neuchâtel), as well as on the occasion of invited guest lectures, e.g. in Khartoum, Münster, Göttingen, Warsaw, Swansea and Pisa. Having for the first time a home game in Vienna (19/11/2014, 5:30 pm) is very much appreciated – especially because it gives all current (and a number of future) team members plus Viennese friends and colleagues the chance to join the presentation tomorrow.

The paper will focus on results of our field work from 2013 to 2014 in the areas SAV1 East and SAV1 West. New insights about the environmental setting, the outline and internal structure of the Pharaonic town will be summarised. Selected finds, including highlights of the 2014 season, and the most important object groups will be discussed.

As mentioned earlier (and elsewhere), objects of Egyptian type dominate the material assemblage at Sai and find many parallels at Egyptian sites in both Egypt and Nubia. Interestingly, the artefacts and ceramics testify to an obvious coexistence between Egyptians and Nubians, from the foundation of the town in the early Dynasty 18 through the remainder of the New Kingdom. During my lecture, I will give some examples, e.g. hybrid forms of pottery, Nubian style female figurines and the small number of hieratic dockets on vessels.

An outline of our planned work in the upcoming season will end this short summary of AcrossBorders’ fieldwork in 2013 and 2014 – I am very excited that the 2015 season is approaching and will give us more to think about!

Crossing borders: from Egypt to Nubia

Posted on October 24, 2014 by Julia Budka

Remains of the ancient town in the southern part of Elephantine Island.

The importance of Elephantine as site with strategic value due to its location just north of the First Nile Cataract is well known. More than forty years of excavations by the joint German-Swiss mission have considerably increased our understanding of this beautiful island in Egypt’s South.

For a long period Elephantine functioned as base for Pharaonic expeditions to Nubia and as important trading point at Egypt’s southern border (cf., e.g., von Pilgrim 2010). With the so-called reconquest of Nubia, the Egyptian expansion towards the South during the 18^th Dynasty, there was an increased demand for the transport of goods, materials and people to and from Upper and Lower Nubia. Elephantine flourished and gained significance during the early New Kingdom and especially in Thutmoside times.

Egyptian officials who participated in expedition and/or military campaigns towards the South had to pass through the First Cataract region. Obviously they spent some time there, at Aswan and Elephantine, before their departure to Nubia as hundreds of rock inscriptions attest (cf. Gasse/Rondot 2007; Seidlmayer 2003).

Further first hand testimony for the presence of these officials comes directly from the settlement of Elephantine – inscribed door jambs attest well-known individuals like viceroy Nehi. Of special interest is the context of these epigraphic sources: living conditions of people like Nehi traceable by the architecture and material culture. For the latter, ceramics are of high significance allowing reconstructing aspects of the daily life like food production and consumption and much more.

Within the framework of AcrossBorders, it is therefore of key importance that the 18^th Dynasty pottery from Elephantine provides very close parallels to the corpus excavated at Sai (cf. Budka 2011). Within the next years, a detailed comparison of the two sites is planned and the ceramics form main elements of this study. This week, we just started our 2014 season of documenting and processing pottery at Elephantine thanks to our cooperation with the Swiss Institute Cairo and kindly supported by the German Archaeological Institute.

The focus is on material from the very early to the mid-18^th Dynasty: Bauschicht/level 10 at Elephantine corresponds to levels 5-4 and the early phase of level 3 at Sai Island. Thanks to the stratigraphy at Elephantine, where several phases within one building from a certain building level are much better preserved than at Sai, a fine dating of the material from the earliest occupation at both sites seems possible in the near future.

Having just started to work with the material, the close comparisons are striking me once again: the main types of vessels are consistent at both sites and include carinated bowls and dishes, plates, footed bowls, stands, beakers and beer jars, cooking pots, storage jars, water jars as well as decorated jars and Nubian vessels.

Differences can be noted in small details – for example regarding the quantities of certain wares and fabrics or technical features of the finished vessels. All in all, we have now a considerable amount of data and material and these are supporting my first assessment published in 2011: The comparison between the material from Sai and Elephantine and especially the imported Nile clay and Marl clay vessels at Sai suggest for at least part of the corpus a provenience from the First Cataract area illustrating the importance of Elephantine as trading point and for equipping expeditions and settlements located in the South (Budka 2011, 29) .

References

Budka 2011 = Julia Budka, The early New Kingdom at Sai Island: Preliminary results based on the pottery analysis (4^th Season 2010), Sudan & Nubia 15, 23–33.

Gasse/Rondot 2007 = Annie Gasse and Vincent Rondot, Les inscriptions de Séhel, Cairo 2007.

von Pilgrim 2010 = Cornelius von Pilgrim, Elephantine – (Festungs-)Stadt am Ersten Katarakt, in Cities and Urbanism in Ancient Egypt, eds. Manfred Bietak, Ernst Cerny and Irene Forstner-Müller, Vienna 2010, 257–265.

Seidlmayer 2003 = Stephan J. Seidlmayer, New Rock Inscriptions on Elephantine Island, in Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century, Proceedings of the Eighth International Congress of Egyptologists Cairo 2000, ed. Zahi Hawass, Vol. 1, Cairo 2003, 441–442.

AcrossBorders

This is the blog of the ERC starting grant project AcrossBorders (ERC grant agreement n° 313668)

Category Archives: Material Culture